Chapter 8 Vital Villages, Thriving Towns

Finding Out About Cities: Stories, Travellers, Sculpture And Archaeology

To understand life in the cities that emerged during this period, historians and archaeologists use various sources of evidence:

• Stories: Narratives, like the Jatakas (stories composed by ordinary people, preserved by Buddhist monks), can provide glimpses into urban life, occupations, and social dynamics.
• Travellers' Accounts: Descriptions written by sailors and travelers who visited these cities.
• Sculpture: Carvings depicting scenes from the lives of people in towns, villages, and forests, used to decorate buildings.
• Archaeology: Excavations uncovering remains of buildings, artifacts, and urban infrastructure.

The Clever Poor Man

The Jataka story about a clever poor young man illustrates various occupations and aspects of urban life:

• The story mentions occupations such as hotel owner, gardener (king's garden), potter (king's potter), and grass cutters. It also implies the existence of traders and horse dealers who traveled to the city.
• Based on the story and broader historical context:
  • Hotel owners and traders likely lived primarily in the city.
  • Gardeners could have lived near the king's garden, which might be within or near the city.
  • Potters likely worked both in villages (supplying local needs) and cities (especially for urban markets or king's needs).
  • Grass cutters likely came from areas outside the city (villages or nearby grasslands) to sell their produce in the city.
  • Horse dealers were travelers who visited the city for trade.

The horse dealer was coming to the city for trade, specifically to sell horses, indicating that cities were centers for commerce in various goods, including livestock.

Regarding women taking up these occupations: While some crafts (like weaving, as noted later) were done by both men and women, occupations like horse dealing, gardening for the king, or being a hotel owner might have been predominantly male domains in that period, although women could have been involved in other aspects of household or craft production within or near these occupations. Without specific evidence from the story or other sources about women's roles in these exact occupations, it is difficult to definitively say. However, historical records often underrepresent women's economic roles.

Sculptures like those from Sanchi (a site with stupas in Madhya Pradesh) provide visual information about the appearance of cities (walls made of brick, wood, or stone), buildings, and daily life.

Cities from about 2500 years ago were often capitals of the mahajanapadas (Chapter 5) and many were protected by massive fortification walls.

Archaeologists have found evidence of drainage systems in these cities, including **ring wells** – rows of pots or ceramic rings stacked on top of each other. These were found in individual houses and appear to have been used as toilets, drains, or garbage dumps.

Remains of palaces, markets, or homes of ordinary people are often scarce. Palaces and markets might be yet to be discovered, while structures made of less durable materials (wood, mud brick, thatch) may not have survived.

Accounts from sailors and travelers are another important source. An unknown Greek sailor's detailed description of the ports he visited, including Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch, Map 7, page 105), provides insights into trade, goods exchanged, and the people involved.

The Story Of Barygaza

The Greek sailor's description of Barygaza (Bharuch) highlights its significance as a port city for trade:

• The gulf near Barygaza was narrow and difficult to navigate, requiring skilled local fishermen employed by the king to guide ships.
• Imports included wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, and gold and silver coins.
• Exports included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk, and perfumes.
• Merchants brought special gifts for the king, such as silver vessels, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines, and fine cloth, likely to maintain good relations and facilitate trade.

Comparing with Harappan times (Chapter 3): while trade existed, some items listed as imports/exports in Barygaza (like wine, gold/silver coins, ivory in large quantities, horses, potentially certain plants/perfumes) and modes of transport (ships guided by pilots) might indicate differences in the scale, type of goods, and organisation of trade compared to the earlier period. The use of **gold and silver coins** and **wine** are explicit imports not mentioned in the Harappan context.

Coins

---

The use of coins as a measure of wealth and medium of exchange is evident in stories like the Jataka tale and confirmed by archaeological finds. Thousands of coins from this period have been discovered.

The earliest coins, in use for about 500 years, were punch-marked coins. These were typically rectangular, square, or round, made from metal sheets or flattened metal globules. Instead of inscriptions, they were stamped with symbols using dies or punches, hence the name. Punch-marked coins were circulated widely across the subcontinent until the early centuries CE.

---

Other Means Of Exchange

---

While coins were used, other forms of exchange also existed. The poem from the Sangam collection describes salt merchants traveling in carts across long roads, exchanging the paddy (rice) from their land for salt from another area. This highlights **barter** as a means of exchange, where goods are directly traded for other goods, particularly between regions with different resources. The merchants are traveling in **carts**, indicating a mode of transport used for carrying goods over land.

---

Cities With Many Functions

---

Some cities were important for multiple reasons, serving various functions. Mathura (Map 7, page 105) is a prime example, having been a significant settlement for over 2500 years.

Mathura's importance stemmed from its location at the **crossroads of two major trade and travel routes**: one connecting the northwest to the east, and another connecting north to south India. This strategic position facilitated trade and movement of people.

The city had **fortifications** and numerous **shrines**, indicating its religious and perhaps strategic importance. Farmers and herders from nearby areas supplied food to the urban population.

Mathura was also a renowned center for producing extremely fine **sculpture**. Around 2000 years ago, it became the second capital of the Kushanas. Furthermore, Mathura was a major **religious center**, with Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important place for the worship of Krishna.

Inscriptions found on stone slabs and statues in Mathura provide information about the people living there and their activities, often recording gifts to monasteries and shrines made by kings, queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons. These inscriptions mention various occupations of people in the city, including goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, and perfumers. The occupation of **perfumers** is an example that was not likely practiced in the earlier Harappan cities, suggesting the development of new crafts and trades in later urban centers.

---

Crafts And Crafts Persons

---

Archaeological evidence confirms the presence of various crafts in the cities of this period. One notable find is extremely fine pottery known as the **Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)**. Its name derives from its prevalence in the northern subcontinent and its hard, wheel-made, metallic-looking appearance with a shiny black surface, achieved through high-temperature firing and applying a fine black slip.

While archaeological evidence for some crafts might not survive (e.g., crafts using perishable materials), texts indicate the importance of cloth manufacture. Famous centers for cloth production included Varanasi (north) and Madurai (south), where both men and women worked.

Many craftspersons and merchants organized themselves into associations called **shrenis**. These shrenis provided training for craftspersons, procured raw materials, and managed the distribution of finished products. Shrenis of merchants organized trade activities. Shrenis also functioned like **banks**, accepting deposits from wealthy individuals and investing the money. Part of the interest earned was returned to the depositors or used to support religious institutions like monasteries.

---

Rules For Spinning And Weaving

---

The Arthashastra (mentioned in Chapter 7) provides detailed rules regarding the management of spinning and weaving in workshops overseen by a special official. These rules indicate the types of women who could be employed (widows, disabled young women, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired royal/temple servants), payment based on work quality and quantity, arrangements for women who could not leave home (sending raw materials and collecting finished work via maidservants), procedures for women visiting workshops (reporting at dawn, sufficient light for inspection), and penalties for superintendent misconduct or workers failing to complete work.

Example. Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent.

Answer:

According to the rules from the Arthashastra, the types of women who could be employed by the superintendent in spinning and weaving workshops included: Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, and women who have retired from service in temples.

Example. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working?

Answer:

Yes, the rules suggest potential problems women might have faced. The provision stating that the superintendent should be punished if he looks at the woman or talks about anything other than work indicates a concern for potential harassment or inappropriate behavior in the workplace. The rule imposing a fine or cutting off thumbs for not completing work highlights a harsh and potentially exploitative working condition, with severe penalties for failing to meet production targets. Women who were not permitted to leave their homes (perhaps due to social restrictions) also had to rely on maidservants to interact with the superintendent, adding another layer of potential complexity or loss of direct control over their work.

---

A Closer Look — Arikamedu

---

Arikamedu (find on Map 7, page 105, in Puducherry) was an important coastal settlement and port between 2200 and 1900 years ago. Evidence from archaeological finds indicates significant trade connections with distant lands, particularly the Mediterranean region.

Finds at Arikamedu include:

• A large brick structure, possibly a warehouse.
• Pottery from the Mediterranean region:
  • Amphorae: Tall, double-handled jars used to contain liquids like wine or oil.
  • Arretine Ware: Stamped red-glazed pottery named after a city in Italy, made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould.
• Other pottery made locally but using Roman designs.
• Roman lamps, glassware, and gems.

These findings strongly indicate **contact with Rome** and extensive maritime trade. Evidence of local production and crafts also exists, including small tanks likely used as dyeing vats for cloth and artifacts related to bead making from semi-precious stones and glass. Pottery pieces with inscriptions in Brahmi (used to write Tamil) found at the site (Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions) provide additional information about the local population and their interactions.

---

Elsewhere

---

Examining cities in other parts of the world provides further context on urban development. Rome (find on Map 6, page 76), one of the oldest cities in Europe, developed around the same time as cities in the Ganga valley. Rome was the capital of a vast empire spanning Europe, North Africa, and West Asia.

Emperors like Augustus (ruled about 2000 years ago) were involved in significant urban development, transforming Rome from a city of brick to one of marble. They constructed temples and palaces, and notably, built huge amphitheatres (open arenas for public shows) and public baths (with separate timings for men and women, serving as social hubs).

To supply water to the city's baths, fountains, and toilets, Romans constructed massive channels called aqueducts. The survival of structures like amphitheatres and aqueducts is due to their construction using durable materials like stone and concrete, highlighting the engineering and architectural prowess of the Romans.

---

Imagine

---

This section prompts an imaginative exercise to describe a visit to the port of Barygaza, envisioning the sights and activities there based on the historical description provided in the chapter.

---

Let’s Recall

---

This section contains questions to review and recall key terms, facts, and concepts from the chapter, including filling in blanks, describing the functions of the gramabhojaka, listing crafts, and choosing the correct answers from multiple-choice options.

---

Let’s Discuss

---

This section includes questions designed to encourage discussion, analysis, and comparison of the information presented, such as identifying the importance of specific iron tools for agriculture, comparing ancient and modern drainage systems, and discussing the significance of various finds.

---

Let’s Do

---

This section suggests activities to engage with the concepts learned, including describing craftspersons' work based on observation and comparing historical occupations in Mathura with modern occupations in one's own locality.

---

Keywords

---

This section lists important terms introduced in the chapter:

• iron
• irrigation
• village
• port
• ring well
• city
• shreni
• Sangam

---

Some Important Dates

---

This section provides a timeline of key periods and events mentioned in the chapter, helping to establish chronological context:

• Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent: about 3000 years ago.
• Increase in the use of iron, emergence of cities and punch-marked coins: about 2500 years ago.
• Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature: about 2300 years ago.
• Settlement in Arikamedu: between 2200 and 1900 years ago.